Analysis of FDI into Zimbabwe

Analysis of FDI into Zimbabwe UNCTAD (2016) reported that in 2015 FDI inflow to Africa was US$54 billion. However, Zimbabwe only received a fraction of the FDI at just US$0.7 billion (ibid). Similarily for 2014, 2013, and 2012 FDI trends have been low (ibid). According to the World Bank Group Flagship Report (2017), Zimbabwe is the 161th country to ease doing business with out of 190 contries. It pales in comparrion with its neighboring countries such as South Africa who is ranted at 74 and Botswana at 71 (WBG, 2017). Following the adoption of the USD in 2009, investment has averaged at just 16% of GDP- however; this is 17% below the investment rate of 33% of GDP that is required for economic growth (WBG, 2017).   It could be argued that the low FDI patterns are not reflective of Zimbabwes potential. The research paper will study influential factors that encourage FDI inflows into Zimbabwe and those that hinder Zimbabwes economic growth. Aims and Objectives of the Study The aims and objectives  of this research is to provide its reader with an empirical investigation of FDI into Zimbabwe and an analysis of what determinants are crucial to boost FDI inflows into Zimbabwe. Literature Review Bekaert et al. (2014) define FDI a occurring when a company from one country makes a significant investment that leads to at least a 10% ownership interest in a firm in another country. Dunning (2002) is accredited for the infamous electic paradigm thereom that is a commom framework for FDI. Dunning (2002) argues that foreign investors are driven in search for location, internalisation and ownership. In addition, foreign investors are attracted to developing nations such as Zimbabwe for resources, strategic assets and markets and efficiency. The favoured route for FDI in Southern Africa is for effeciency and resource seeking companies. Sikwila (2015) states that companies interested in efficiency are attracted to developing contries such as Zimbabwe. This is due to the low production and labour costs and trade liberisation. Resource seeking companies are in search of gold and diamonds in Zimbabwe and Botswana. Sikwila (2015) also argues that developing nations rarely, if ever, attrac t strategic seeking investotrs as they are often behind on technology and innovation due to domestic financial issues. Economic globalisation consists of FDI, trade and the transfer of technology and knowledge. Despite the globalisation phenomenon, it is evident that LEDC are yet to reap the rewards particularly in technological advancements (Van de Bank, C. 2010). Emperical Literature There are four frameworks that examine FDI in developing nations. The first concept studies the key factors of FDI in relation to push and pulls factors (Norris, E. et al. 2010). This approach focuses on examining factors such as the firms size, its parity conditions (interst rates, exchange rates and inflation rates), its five forces with particular attention to export competitiness and other operational and endogenous conditions. These factors either push or pull FDI. The second concept studies the FDI drivers that are derived externally to investors. Nguyen et al. (2012) classifies these factors into four areas (i) supply side (ii) demand side (iii) institutional. The third concept places FDI determinants into one of three economic groups. The first is the investment climate, secondly, the exchange market policies, and lastly trade (Sekkat et al. K. 2007). The final concept studies FDI in relation to timing, irreversibility, and uncertainty (Ramirez, M. 2006. Lee, C. et al., 200 9). Researches provide arguments for the above afromention constructs and will be dicussed in detail in the final research project. Research Design Methodology Saunders et al. (2012) suggest that ones approach to research stratergy and implementation is crucial as it determines the results and expectations one desires to achieve. To optimise the results, the research metholodody will begin by considering each layer of the research onion (Saunders et al. 2012). As the onion layers unravel, the model will offer a clear metholodogy in conducting the research. The research proposes for the variables to be GDP, Inflation, External debt, Trade Openess. The variables computed will all be led by theoretical assumptions and empirical literature. The methodology for the research will be a dominated by qualitative research with minor quantitative approaches (hbgkbgkergbkre). The general equation for the research can be traced to Clarkes (1917) accelerator theory, which was furher developed by Hicks (1951). However, it was Bernake et al. (1988) who observed that the neo classical approach to investment combined with the accelerator theory produced inte prable and accurate results for FDI in developing nations. Data Collection Method The research will use secondary data from a variety of enquiry sources thus reducing the risk of biased results. The enquiry sources are listed below (not exhausted); Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe South African Development Community Southern African Trade and Investmnet Hub World Bank Group World Trade Organisation Zimbabwe Investment Centre Zimbabwe Minsitry of Finance Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency

Racial Tensions in South Africa Essay -- Racial Relations, Racism

History of South Africa South Africa has large varieties ethnic backgrounds; unfortunately for them none of them are allowed their chance to shine because of the cloud of racism that has over shadowed their history. Like the United States, South African countries are built for the success of whites before any other ethnicity. This can be found in the countries politics and economics alike. For over 300 years this racism has occurred. Around the 1940’s South Africans have coined a policy for this racism, â€Å"apartheid†. In English apartheid can be translated to â€Å"Apart-hood†. (2) This will be touched about in more detail later. Like the United States, South Africa has had to deal with centuries of racism, the problem being that South Africans racism doesn’t seem to be depleting as fast as other countries in the same situation. The first sign of â€Å"civilization† to take place in South Africa began in the mid 1600’s when the Dutch East India Company formed a cape colony. (3) It wasn’t long before the colonists were in need of workers to help farm their rapidly expanding settlement. So like many countries of their time, they went with the route of slavery. Naturally the best candidates for this position were natives to South Africa. Slaves weren’t a necessity, but they were very convenient for the newly settled Dutch (2). The Dutch continued to govern South Africa until the English took over in the 18th century. Fast-forward to the 20th century where racism is just as relevant as ever, and in 1910 new laws have been passed regarding segregation. These laws in 1910 â€Å"expanded racial segregation† (2). A big part of the new law was that whites were now able to seize land owned by black farmers. Also around this time the gov... ...dignity’ required adhering to a code of social and gender behavior appropriate to a ruling race. There was a moral base for antagonism towards blacks: 'It is Nature's deep-seated provision for racial integrity. It is the voice of evolutionary experience speaking within US Similarly, John L. Weston of Brandfort, wrote approvingly of vigilante justice in the US South. He wrote of white Southerners he had known who were highly intelligent, respectable, sympathetic and reasonable, yet who became demented when a "Black Peril" (Plaatje, 1982) case occurred within their reach. This, he argued, was a healthy and virtuous reaction; it is the very capacity of the white man's mind for good that causes this uncontrollable indignation'. He predicted that lynch law will sooner or later be introduced here as it has been in the USA unless heroic steps are taken without much delay.

Fungi with Focus on Subdivision Zygomycotina and Ascomycotina

Fungi comprises a huge and varied group of organisms that have common characteristics with both the lower plants (algae) and lower animals but are not related to each other(1, a, b,c). They contain true mitochondria and a membrane-enclosed nucleus. They have no chlorophyll and chloroplast. Reproduction is achieved through sexual and asexual means(12). Most fungi grow as branched tubular systems, or mycelia, whose individual filaments or hyphae are surrounded by rigid cell walls containing chitin, cellulose, or both, and other polysaccharides. All fungi lack photosynthetic ability and therefore require preformed organic compounds(2).Prior to the development of fungi in the microscope in the 1600s, the only fungi described were the higher fungi that have large fruiting structures, such as morels, mushrooms, and puffballs. In 1836, the study of fungi was termed mycology (a branch of botany). The different groups of fungi are classified according to their means of sexual reproduction, li fe cycle exhibited, growth and developmental stages, and means of asexual propagation(4). Two Division System: Myxomycota and Eumycota. Ainsworth constructed a two-division system for fungi—the kingdom is divided into two groups, namely Division Myxomycota and Division Eumycota.In Division Myxomycota, the fungi grow as multinucleate amoeboid plasmodia and produce motile uninucleate amobae, as well as biflagellate cells. The so called true fungi are placed in Division Eumycota. The evolutionary relations for this division may be described as a single phyletic series, except for Oomycetes(6). Eumycota and Subdivisions. The Division Eumycota is subdivided into subdivison Mastigomycotina, Basidiomycotina, Deuteromycotina, Zygomycotina, and Ascomycotina. In subdivision Mastigomycotina, the fungi produce motile spores called zoospores, with one or two flagella.The subdivision Basidiomycotina includes members producing haplontic sexual spores called basidiospores on a specialized ce ll called the basidium. The subdivision Deuteromycotina includes all fungi that lack known sexual reproductive structures. Most fungi that cannot be classified fall under this subdivision. The subdivision Zygomycotina has a single class, Zygomycetes and this class includes fungi—bread molds or pin molds—that typically produce an abundant or aerial, coenocytic mycelium and are common causes for the decay of of foods and rich sources of organic material.The subdivision Ascomycotina (formerly the class Ascomycetes) includes all true fungi in which sexual reproduction results in ascospores, produced within specialized structures called an ascus(7). Zygomycotina. The subdivision Zygomycotina has cell walls containing chitin as a primary component. They reproduce asexually by means of non-motile spores called sporangiospores produced in the sporangia formed on branches (sporangiophores) of the mycelium. In some species, such as the Rhizopus nigrificans, the sporangia arise i n clusters with rhizoids at the base and hyphal strands or stolons interconnecting the clusters.The spores are released by the breakdown of the sporangial wall of the sporangial wall and dispersed by air /wind or water current. They germinate by direct outgrowth of hyphal tube to produce a new mycelium. Rhizoids anchor the fungi to the substrate, acting like roots, thus releasing the enzymes necessary to breakdown the substrate and absorbing the broken down nutrients (1). Sexual reproduction may occur between different parts of the mycelium (homothallic mating) or between two sterile strains/cells of opposite mating type. The latter is regulated by a single pair of genes or alleles.One gene is said to be the plus mating type and the other the minus mating type (8). The gametangia, or the sex organs, fuse to form a dormant, thick-walled pigmented and often sculpted zygote called the zygospore. The mature zygospores eventually germinate to produce the new haploid mycelium. The represe ntatives for this subdivision are members of the Rhizopus species like R. oligosporus and R. stolonifer(2). The genetic regulation of sexual reproduction in fungi was first discovered in Zygomycetes by Albert Blakeslee, who coined the terms homothallism and heterothallism to describe the two opposite mating types.Both are known to be common in throughout the kingdom. Ascomycotina. The subdivision Ascomycotina have chitinous cell walls. In many ascomycetes, male structures (antheridia) and female structures (ascogonia) are produced. The antheridia donate nuclei to the ascogonia by fusion with a receptive filament, the trichogyne. In others, the same function may be accomplished by conidia (asexual spores that can also serve as fertilizing elements) or by hyphal fusion. The parental nuclei in the ascogonium unite in the ascogonium and enter the hyphal branches that grow out from it within a developing fruiting body called the ascocarp.The paired parental nuclei divide synchronously (c onjugate division) in specialized hyphae with binucleate cells (ascogenous hyphae). The tip cells of the ascogenous hyphae form a hook in which the haploid parental nuclei fuse to produce a diploid zygote nucleus. The zygote nucleus immediately undergoes meiotic division to produce four haploid nuclei in the enlarging cell, called the ascus at this type of development. In most cases the a mitotic nuclear division then doubles the number of nuclei per ascus, after which each nucleus is enclosed in a cell wall to form the ascospores.The hypahe have simple washer-shaped septa with a central pore; and the asexual reproduction occurs by formation of non-motile spores — conidia, oidia, arthrospores and others — that are usually produced on specialized branches called conidiophores. Several classes of ascomycetes exist. The class Hemiascomycetes includes the unicellular or mycelial yeast. The class Plectomycetes includes several economically important fungi that form their as ci in small, simple, closed fruiting structures (cleisthothecia).The powdery mildews are all obligate parasites of higher plants and are largely host-specific. A second major group of plectomycetes include the commercially utilizable genera Aspergillus and Penicillium,as well as important pathogens of plants and humans. Sexual reproduction is relatively rare among species of Aspergillus (185 species) and Penicillium (14 species). Aspergillus produces chains of pigmented, asexual conidia on the surface of an inflated region of a branch called a conidiophore.Conidium formation is similar similar in Penicillium, but the conidiopore is branched to form a brushlike structure (penicillus) instead of having an inflated vesicle. The conidia are connected by chains in conidiophores but are readily dispersed by air currents. The green, black, yellow and gray colonies of these common microfungi are the results of the color of the huge number of pigmented conidia produced on the surface. All fu ngi in class Pyrenomycetes produce asci and ascospore sas an organized hymenial layer in a fruiting body called perithecium.The perithecium is a small flask-shaped structure with a thin wall that surrounds a basal tuft of asci with the opening at the top called an ostiole. The ascospores are typically discharged from the tips of the asci as they sequentially protrude from the ostiole. The perithecia may form separate structures on the mycelium, or they may lie just below the surface of a larger mass of sterile hyphae called stroma(10). In addition to their roles in the decay of plant and animal residues and in food spoilage, these fungi (h,j) are of great significance to humans in many other ways.Aspergillus fumugatus, a common inhabitant of the heated compost, can cause respiratory disease in humans, and a number of related species may produce aflatoxin, a tumor inducing alkaloid, in poorly stored moldy grain(9. ) A. flavus and A. parasiticus produces aflatoxin, B1 (f), B2 (g), G1 and G2, the first mentioned being the most toxic (a, b,c). The disease caused by Aspergillus is termed as aspergillosis characterized by allergy and infection-like symptoms (3,4). The potential threat of Aspergillus as biological weapon of mass destruction is still being investigated (d-j).Species of both Penicillium and Aspergillus are used extensively in commercial fermentations. Camembert cheese derives its flavor from Penicillium camemberti, and Roquefort from P. roqueforti. Soy sauce is fermented with Aspergillus oryzae or A. soyae. This class also includes other species that cause disease in humans, animals and plants (4, j); for example the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi is responsible for the Dutch Elm disease, other species cause a wilt disease in oaks and still others reduce the quality in number (3, l). Antibiotics were first fist produced using penicillin from P.notatum; the antibiotic activity of this fungus was first described by Alexander Fleming in 1929. Only through a joi nt effort of British and American scientists during the World War II, however was the industrial-scale production achieved, by using a better strains of P. chrysogenum. A huge antibiotic industry has since developed. . Various microfungi are used to produced a number of organic acids—gluconic, itaconic and citric acids (d,e, m), for example—and in other chemical processes. Citric acid fermentation yields about 99,000 each year.Penicillium’s uses do not extend to cheese and to antibiotics alone but also in agriculture—serves as soil bioinoculant. Ochratoxin is produced by P. viridicatum and P. verrucosum. Selected Bibliography I. Books 1. Ainsworth, G. C. (1976). Introduction to the History of Mycology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, In 2. Alexopoulas, C. J. Introductory Mycology. (1979). NY: Wentworth Pub, Inc. 3. Bulmer, G. C. (1979). Introduction to Medical Mycology. London: Academic Press. 4. Christensen, M. C. (1975). Molds, Mushrooms and Mycotoxins. NY : Plenum Press 5. Emmons, C. W. , Binford, J. P.Utz, J. P. , and Kwon-Chung, K. J. , 1977. Medical Mycology. New England: UP. 6. Garraway, M. O. and Evans, R. C. , Fungal Nutrition and Physiology. 1984. London: Academic Press. 7. Gray, W. D. Alexopoulus, C. J.. Biology of Myxomycetes. 1968. NY: Wentworth Pub, Inc. 8. Grolier Encyclopedia. (1993). Grolier International Inc. 9. Raper KB, Fennell DI. , 1965 The genus Aspergillus . Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins. 10. Webster, J. Introduction to Fungi. 1980. NY: WMC Inc. II. Journals a. Asan A, Ekmekci S. , 1994 The determination of Penicillium and Aspergillus species in Edirnesoils and their seasonal distribution Tr J Biol 18:291-303 b. El-Said AHM. , 1994 Studies on soil mycoflora of Bahreen Microbiol Res 149:263-269 c. Fresquez PR. , 1990 Fungi associated with soils collected beneath and between pinyon and juniper canopies in New Mexico Great Basin Naturalist 50:167-172 d. Ghildiyal JC. , 1993 Mycoflora of decomposing leaf litter in a subtropical freshwater swamp Proc Nat Acad Sci India 63: (B)H 207-211 e. Joffe AZ. , 1967 The mycoflora of a light soil in a citrus fertilizer trial in Israel Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata 32:209-230 f. Kamal Gupta ML, Kumar P., 1979 Aspergilli from soils of Gorakhpur 9: Edaphic factors and distribution in 4 soil types against plane cover Indian J Mycol Plant Pathol 9:56-65 gKhallil AM, Abdel-Sater MA. , 1993 Fungi from water, soil, and air polluted by industrial effluents of Manquabad superphosphate factory (Assuit, Egypt) J Basic Microbiol 31:83- 100 h. Klich M. , 1998 Soil fungi of some low-altitude desert cotton fields and ability of their extracts to inhibit Aspergillus flavus Mycopathologia 142:97-100 i. Rutherford JM, Huang LH. , 1994 A study of fungi of remote sediments in West Virginia cavesand a comparison with reported species in the literature NSS Bulletin 56:38-45 j. Steiman R, Guiraud P, Sage L, Seigle-Murandi F, Lafond J-L. , 1995 Mycoflora of soil around the Dead Sea I-Ascomycetes (including Aspergillus and Penicillium), Basidiomycetes, Zygomycetes System Appl Microbiol 18:310-317 l. Sulun Y, Hasenekoglu I. , 1993 A study on Aspergillus Mich. ex. Fr. and Penicillium Link ex. Gray flora of the soils of northeast Anatolia, Turkiye Doga-Tr J Biol 17:49-60 m. Yaguchi T, Someya A, Udagawa SI. , 1994 Fennellia flavipes and Neosartorya stiamenia, two new records from Japan Mycoscience 35:175-178

What Is the Kennewick Man Controversy About

The Kennewick Man news story is one of the most important archaeology stories of modern times. The discovery of Kennewick Man, the vast amount of public confusion over what he represents, the Federal governments attempt to settle the case out of court, the suit pressed by scientists, the objections raised by the Native American community, the rulings of the court and, eventually, the analysis of the remains; all of these issues have affected how scientists, Native Americans, and the Federal governmental bodies conduct work and how that work is scrutinized by the public.This series was begun in 1998, after the news program Sixty Minutes broke the story in a 12-minute segment. Normally, twelve minutes is generous for an archaeology story, but this is not a normal archaeology story. The Discovery of Kennewick Man In 1996, there was a boat race on the Columbia River, near Kennewick, in Washington State, in the extreme northwestern United States. Two fans pulled ashore to get a good viewpoint of the race, and, in the shallow water at the edge of the bank, they found a human skull. They took the skull to the county coroner, who passed it to archaeologist James Chatters. Chatters and others went to the Columbia and retrieved a nearly complete human skeleton, with a long, narrow face suggestive of a person of European descent. But the skeleton was confusing to Chatters; he noticed that the teeth had no cavities and for a 40-50-year-old man (the most recent studies  suggest he was in his thirties), the teeth were extremely ground down. Cavities are the result of a corn-based (or sugar-enhanced) diet; grinding damage usually results from grit in the diet. Most modern people dont have grit in their food  but do consume sugar in some form and so do have cavities. And Chatters spotted a projectile point embedded in his right pelvis, a Cascade point, normally dated between 5,000 and 9,000 years before the present. It was clear that the point had been there while the individual was alive; the lesion in the bone had partially healed. Chatters sent off a bit of the bone to be ​radiocarbon dated. Imagine his astonishment when he received the radiocarbon date as over 9,000 years ago.That stretch of the Columbia River is maintained by the United States Army Corps of Engineers; that same stretch of the river is considered by the Umatilla tribe (and five others) as part of their traditional homeland. According to the Native American Graves and Repatriation Act, signed into law by President George H. W. Bush in 1990, if human remains are found on federal lands and their cultural affiliation can be established, the bones must be returned to the affiliated tribe. The Umatillas  made a formal claim to the bones; the Army Corps agreed with their claim and began the process of repa triation.   Unresolved Questions But the Kennewick man problem isnt that simple; he represents a part of a problem which archaeologists have yet to solve. For the past thirty years or so, weve believed that the peopling of the American continent took place around 12,000 years ago, in three separate waves, from three separate parts of the world. But recent evidence has begun to indicate a vastly more complicated settlement pattern, a steady influx of small groups from different parts of the world, and probably somewhat earlier than we had assumed. Some of these groups lived, some may have died out. We just dont know and Kennewick Man was considered too important a piece of the puzzle for archaeologists to let him go unanalyzed without a fight. Eight scientists sued for the right to study the Kennewick materials prior to their reburial. In September 1998, a judgment was reached, and the bones were sent to a Seattle museum on Friday, October 30th, to be studied. That wasnt the end of it of course. It took a protracted legal debate until researchers were allowed access to the Kennewick Man materials in 2005, and results finally began to reach the public in 2006.br/>The political battles over the Kennewick man were framed in a large part by people who want to know to what race he belongs. Yet, the evidence reflected in the Kennewick materials is further proof that race is not what we think it is. The Kennewick man  and most of the Paleo-Indian and archaic human skeletal materials that weve found to date are not Indian, nor are they European. They dont fit into ANY category that we define as a race. Those terms are meaningless in prehistory as long ago as 9,000 years--and in fact, if you want to know the truth, there are NO clearcut scientific definitions of race.